Standing on the Shoulders of Giants
How Every Scientific Breakthrough Rests on What Came Before
The Metaphor That Defines Science
When Isaac Newton wrote in 1675, "If I have seen further it is by standing on the sholders [sic] of Giants," he captured a fundamental truth about how knowledge progresses 1 . This now-famous metaphor, beautifully articulated in a letter to his rival Robert Hooke, suggests that scientific advancement doesn't occur in isolation but rather builds upon the discoveries of those who came before 4 .
"If I have seen further it is by standing on the sholders of Giants."
What's less known is that Newton might have intended this gracious acknowledgment as a subtle jab at Hooke, who was of slight build and had a spinal curvature—a sophisticated burn in one of science's most historic correspondences 1 .
Historical Significance
Newton's metaphor has become a defining principle of scientific progress.
Collaborative Nature
Knowledge creation is fundamentally collaborative across generations.
Modern Relevance
The principle remains vital in today's interconnected research landscape.
The Ancient Roots of a Modern Idea
Long before Newton's famous correspondence, the concept of intellectual inheritance had been circulating among scholars for centuries. The earliest documented appearance dates to 1159, when John of Salisbury recorded that Bernard of Chartres "used to compare us to dwarfs perched on the shoulders of giants" 1 .
Did You Know?
This medieval insight acknowledged that contemporary scholars could see further not because of their own keen vision or great height, but "because we are lifted up and borne aloft on their gigantic stature" 1 .
The metaphor found beautiful visual expression in the stained glass of Chartres Cathedral, where the four major prophets of the Hebrew Bible are depicted as gigantic figures with the four New Testament evangelists sitting on their shoulders 1 .
The message was clear: the evangelists, though smaller in physical representation, could see further because they built upon the foundational work of those who preceded them.
Chartres Cathedral, where the "shoulders of giants" metaphor was visually represented in stained glass.
The Giant's Shoulders Effect: What Modern Research Reveals
Contemporary science has put Newton's metaphor to the test, examining whether collaboration with established leaders in a field genuinely accelerates scientific success. The findings provide empirical validation for what philosophers had long suspected.
A comprehensive 2017 study in the Journal of Informetrics analyzed over 1.7 million authors in computer science to determine how collaborating with established researchers affects career progression 3 . The researchers identified "Authority Authors" (AAs)—those with an h-index of 40 or higher—and examined the impact of co-authorship with these established leaders.
The analysis revealed that junior researchers who collaborated with these "giants" experienced significantly higher citation rates for their papers and more rapid career advancement 3 . This "giant's shoulders effect" demonstrates how knowledge transfer occurs not just through published literature but through direct mentorship and collaboration.
1.7M+
Authors analyzed in the study
Collaboration Impact on Citation Metrics
| Collaboration Type | Citation Impact |
|---|---|
| With Authority Authors | Significantly higher |
| Without Authority Authors | Standard citation rates |
| Early-career with AAs | 2-3x increase |
Communication Strategies
The mechanism behind this effect lies in what communication theorists call intensify/downplay schemas—strategies that help accentuate positive attributes while minimizing negatives 2 .
Established researchers have typically mastered these communication patterns, along with understanding which emotional needs drive scientific curiosity and funding decisions—from the desire for ego gratification to the reassurance of worth that comes from making meaningful contributions 2 .
Case Study: The Discovery of Split Genes
Perhaps no modern discovery better illustrates "standing on the shoulders of giants" than the Nobel Prize-winning identification of split genes by Sir Richard Roberts and Phillip Sharp in 1993. Their groundbreaking revelation that genes in higher organisms are not continuous but appear in segments separated by non-coding regions fundamentally transformed our understanding of genetics 9 .
The Experimental Journey
The path to this discovery began with research on restriction enzymes—bacterial proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences. These molecular scissors, first isolated in 1970, "opened new doors into our understanding of how DNA is manipulated in nature" and paved the way for DNA sequencing and mapping 9 .
1970
Isolation of Type II restriction enzymes by Smith, Wilcox, and Kelly provided tools for precise DNA cutting.
1972
First use of restriction enzymes for DNA mapping by Danna and Nathans demonstrated application for genetic analysis.
1970s
Database of restriction enzymes (REBASE) created by Roberts and colleagues provided essential research resource.
1977
Electron microscopy of DNA-RNA hybrids by Roberts and Sharp revealed discontinuous gene structure.
Methodology
- Viral DNA Analysis: Researchers examined DNA from adenovirus using restriction enzymes.
- Electron Microscopy: The team employed advanced imaging techniques.
- Unexpected Observations: Instead of continuous DNA-RNA pairing, they observed unpaired DNA regions.
- Interpretation: These indicated non-coding DNA segments interrupting coding sequences.
Impact
The dramatic implications of this discovery became immediately apparent: genetic information in higher organisms requires a processing step where non-coding regions are removed and coding regions are spliced together.
This explained how complexity arises from limited genetic material and forever changed our understanding of genetics.
"As was famously said by Isaac Newton: 'If I see further than others it is because I stand on the shoulders of giants'. This aptly summarizes all research."
The Scientist's Toolkit: Essential Research Reagents
Behind most scientific breakthroughs lies a collection of fundamental tools and reagents that make discovery possible. These unsung heroes of the laboratory represent the collective progress of the scientific community, enabling researchers to build upon existing methods rather than reinventing them with each new investigation.
Essential Research Tools
| Research Tool | Primary Function |
|---|---|
| Restriction enzymes | Cut DNA at specific sequences |
| DNA methyltransferases | Add methyl groups to DNA |
| REBASE database | Comprehensive listing of restriction enzymes |
| NEBcutter | Online tool for DNA sequence analysis |
| Literature databases | Catalog scientific publications |
Commercial Availability
The commercial availability of high-quality research reagents from companies like New England Biolabs (NEB) has been crucial to scientific advancement.
What's remarkable about NEB is its unusual ethos—founded not merely for profit but to "make money to support research" 9 . This commitment to the broader scientific enterprise underscores how the entire research ecosystem contributes to progress.
Evolution of Tools
The REBASE database exemplifies how tools build upon one another. Originally a simple listing of restriction enzymes, it has evolved into a sophisticated web resource that incorporates bioinformatic predictions alongside biochemical data, allowing researchers to identify new restriction systems in sequenced bacterial genomes 9 .
Such tools become the shoulders upon which future discoveries stand.
Conclusion: The Collective Nature of Knowledge
The metaphor of standing on the shoulders of giants continues to resonate because it captures an essential truth about how knowledge evolves. From Newton's recognition of his debt to Descartes to Roberts' acknowledgment of those who pioneered restriction enzyme research, scientific progress has always been a collaborative endeavor spanning generations.
This principle extends beyond science to technology, art, and innovation in every field. As novelist Isaac Asimov discovered when editor John W. Campbell mentored him early in his career, having guides who "see ahead what others cannot see" helps navigate the course to discovery 5 .
The most successful thinkers throughout history have operated not from envy but from a place of inspiration, with a hunger to learn from those who see the world through "a lens of wonder and scrutiny" 5 .
"I don't know what I may seem to the world, but, as to myself, I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me."
In the end, we are all dwarves on the shoulders of giants—and it is through acknowledging and building upon the work of those who came before us that we collectively see further into the great ocean of truth that awaits discovery.